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Abstract:
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"The sustainable management of forests and forest resources are recognized as essential at global, regional national and local levels for environmental, social, and economic services. Forest resources and their management systems are extensively studied for the reason of finding suitable strategies to manage them in a sustainable, efficient and equitable manner. In countries where majority of the population are subsistence farmers, providing access to forests is a necessity for the welfare of the rural poor. However, forests are becoming increasingly scarce in the face of pressures emanating from human craze for economic development. The unlimited wants of vested interest groups in utilizing the scarce forest resources make reconciliation not only an economic problem but it is a problem decided in the arena of political economy. It is argued that governments limit ownership and use right of local communities over forest resources. On the other hand, communities are believed to have successfully managed forests for decades.
"This paper attempts to trace the evolution of resource management institutions in Bhutan. Three eras were identified as associated with the evolution of resource management institutions. The study portrays the circumstances under which local level people-forest interactions were influenced under the evolving religio-political regimes in Bhutan. It discusses the circumstances under which religion influenced charitable attitudes in rural farmers, which in turn served as a basis for religious figures to assume and strengthen political and administrative roles. Paralleling the evolution of political system that was characterized by religio-politico leaders was the evolution of local resource management institutions. During the time when religio-politico and petty rulers (desids) were constantly engaged in internal strife for power, the rural poor were subjected to burdening in-kind taxation and obligatory services that led to peasant classification. The heavy taxation provided no incentives for fostering economic welfare. Nonetheless, it later served as a basis for legitimacy of de-facto claims over forest resources. The paper also highlights that the origin of resources boundaries at village as well as district levels had their roots in the evolution of political economy.
"The study deduces that local resource management institutions evolved prior to 1950s. The livelihoods of peasant farmers were characterized by increased dependency on the agricultural lands and surrounding forest resources for wood, fodder, water, and other forest products; poverty was bound to be inherent with layers of peasant classes under the burdening taxes and oppression; and the uncertainty about being spared the oppressive taxation amidst the uncertain situation of peasants in matching annual harvest (subject to environmental uncertainty) with state demands and family needs. With poverty, dependence on agriculture and natural resources, and uncertainty, villagers evolved ways of working together for common benefits that are based on mutual trust and reciprocity, which are important rural livelihood contributions to forest conservation in Bhutan."
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