Prospects for Whale Shark Conservation in Eastern Indonesia Through Bajo Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Community-based Monitoring

Copyright: © Stacey et al. 2012. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and distribution of the article, provided the original work is cited. Abstract The whale shark, Rhincodon typus, is a long-lived migratory species inhabiting tropical and warm-temperate waters worldwide. Seasonal aggregations of whale sharks in shallow coastal waters of many countries have led to the development of ecotourism industries. Whale sharks that aggregate seasonally at Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia have a migration range within Indonesian and Southeast Asian waters. However, very little is known about their behaviour, local migration patterns, or potential threats faced in this region. In this study, we investigated traditional ecological knowledge of whale sharks through interviews with Bajo and other fi shers from fi ve settlements in the Timor and Roti Islands in eastern Indonesia. We found that there are culturally driven prohibitions and customary beliefs concerning whale sharks among Bajo fi shermen, who commonly sight sharks in the Timor Sea, in southern Indonesian and Timor Leste waters. Sightings are most common during the months of August to December. Interviews also indicate a low level of harvesting of whale sharks in the region. The results demonstrate the potential for combining traditional ecological knowledge and new technology to develop whale shark management strategies, and to determine the predictability of whale shark appearances as one vital factor in assessing the potential for development of small-scale whale shark ecotourism initiatives.


INTRODUCTION
The whale shark, Rhincodon typus, is a large (reputedly up to 18 m in leingth) migratory species that inhabits tropical and warm-temperate waters worldwide (Stevens 2007).Although they are principally oceanic, seasonal aggregations of these sharks occur in the shallow coastal waters of many countries, probably in response to ephemeral, but predictable, increases in their planktonic prey (Jarman and Wilson 2004;Meekan et al. 2009).At many localities, this behaviour has led to the development of ecotourism industries that are based on snorkelers swimming with whale sharks (Meekan et al. 2006;Rowat 2007).
While these valuable industries exist in numerous countries, whale sharks have also been the subject of targeted fi sheries for their fi ns and fl esh, particularly in the Southeast and South Asian regions.Rapid declines in catches in these fi sheries have created concerns over the status of whale shark populations, which in 2002, led to the listing of the species in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (CITES 2002).This agreement strictly regulates the trade of the species based on quotas and permits, with the aim of preventing unsustainable exploitation.Many countries with aggregation sites for these sharks, including Australia, USA, Taiwan, Belize, Maldives, Philippines, Thailand, India and Mexico, have also now banned the harvesting and sale of whale shark products (NHT 2005;Camhi et al. 2009).However, these represent only a small portion of the 130 countries in whose waters whale sharks are known to occur.
One of the best-known aggregations of whale sharks occurs at Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia (Meekan et al. 2006) where there is a large ecotourism industry based on the occurrence of these sharks in near-reef waters from March to July (Bradshaw et al. 2008;Caitlin and Jones 2010).Evidence from photo-identifi cation and eco-tourist sighting databases suggests that sharks visiting Ningaloo are declining in both size and number (Bradshaw et al. 2007(Bradshaw et al. , 2008)), although the lack of reproductive data makes this hypothesis diffi cult to confi rm.After leaving the aggregation site at Ningaloo, whale sharks migrate towards Indonesian and Southeast Asian waters to the north.Eckert et al. (2002), Wilson et al. (2006) and Bradshaw et al. (2008) suggest that the over-harvesting of whale sharks somewhere within this migration range may account for the potential declines witnessed at Ningaloo Reef.
It is diffi cult to confi rm this idea since there is little published catch data on whale sharks (referred to as ikan bodoh or 'stupid fi sh' in Indonesian language, refl ecting their status as an easy target) from targeted fi sheries or as by-catch (Camhi et al. 2009) through most of Southeast Asia.A few published reports exist of whale sharks caught opportunistically using haul nets, gill nets and harpoons in Bali, Lombok and North Sulawesi, and the sale of whale shark fi ns and meat at local markets in eastern Indonesia was recorded by White and Cavanagh (2007).However, it is diffi cult, if not impossible, to use these records to extrapolate to total catches, due to the opportunistic nature of the trade and under-reporting (White and Cavanagh 2007).The fi ns are also valued as restaurant display items in Southeast Asia, but they do not fetch high prices when compared to other shark species (White and Cavanagh 2007).In Indonesia, there are no ecotourism enterprises focused on charismatic marine mega-fauna such as whale sharks, although the species is commonly encountered in broader marine ecotourism and diving tourism trips across the archipelago.
The best-documented harvest data are from Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT), where villagers from Lamalera and Lamakera on Lembata and Solor Islands respectively have harvested whale sharks as part of a subsistence whaling fi shery (that also takes toothed whales, manta rays and dolphins) since at least the 1970s (Hembree 1980;Barnes 1996Barnes , 2005;;Mustika 2006).In 1995, Lamalera people are known to have taken 100 whale sharks during a year of exceptionally high catches (Barnes 2005), but anecdotal evidence suggests that up to 10 whale sharks per year have been harvested during the last decade or so (Dwyer pers. comm. 2007).Records on whale shark catches are sporadic and largely based on personal observations of visiting researchers and the staff of non-government organisations (NGO) (Kahn pers. comm. 2008;Fowler pers. comm. 2009) and travel writers (e.g., Severin 1999).Furthermore, no information exists in the published literature regarding traditional ecological knowledge of whale sharks from Lamalera, and specifi cally, on indigenous beliefs and cosmology relating to whale sharks in Indonesia.
Wildlife ecotourism ventures have been established around the world to help in the conservation of threatened marine species, such as turtles, as well as provide economic benefi ts to local communities (Meletis and Harrison 2010;Pegas and Stronza 2010).Development of ecotourism operations based on interactions with whale sharks could provide a potential conservation and management strategy.Ecotourism could present an alternative to the opportunistic fi sheries that could threaten the future of the species throughout the region, providing potential economic opportunities for local communities in eastern Indonesia.A wide range of social and economic factors would need to be explored before any ecotourism venture could be contemplated, but more fundamentally, such a venture fi rst requires conditions where whale sharks can be accessed on a predictable basis and in suffi cient numbers to accommodate the development of ecotourism industries.However, it is diffi cult to determine if such conditions exist, due to the lack of any formal surveying or reporting by governments.
Investigating the traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) 1 of whale sharks held by local people provides an alternative means of accessing this information.It is now generally accepted that any conservation initiative is more likely to succeed if a multi-disciplinary approach involving social and natural science knowledge are considered and evaluated (Drew and Henne 2006;Fraser et al. 2006;Risen and Tilt 2010).The application of TEK has been acknowledged for its contribution to the management and conservation of marine species, where knowledge from local fi shers can be evaluated and combined with western scientifi c knowledge and management approaches for enhancing biodiversity conservation and management of fi sheries or threatened species (Johannes 1981;Johannes et al. 2000;Aswani and Hamilton 2004;Moller et al. 2004;Drew and Henne 2006;Fraser et al. 2006;Mallory et al. 2006;Lauer and Aswani 2008;Lavides et al. 2010).
In this paper, we have chosen to use the term TEK, despite potential negative connotations associated with the word 'traditional' implying knowledge being frozen in time (Stacey 2007;Heckler 2009).Furthermore, the term 'ecological' tends to separate the social and spiritual aspects from the biological, whereas indigenous peoples do not regard these as separate knowledge forms (Berkes 1999) 2 .Irrespective of these problems of nomenclature, here we adopt a defi nition of traditional ecological knowledge as "a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship between living beings (including humans) with one another and their environment" (Berkes 1999: 8).This knowledge comprises four interrelated elements: local knowledge of the environment (e.g., fi sh); systems of resource management; social institutions; and world viewspiritual and cultural components that give rise to the 'sacred knowledge' construct (Berkes 1999: 13).
Documentation of TEK can provide valuable ecological information on marine species and incorporate important wildlife-human interactions that may not otherwise be revealed in published scientifi c descriptions of marine species (Johannes and Yeeting 2001).Indigenous communities are often highly dependent on local natural resources and may therefore know about natural fl uctuations in population size, habitat specifi city, aggregation, and migration patterns that are not yet recorded in scientifi c literature (Huntington et al. 2004;Drew 2005;Mallory et al. 2006).It can be argued that TEK can provide a cheaper and more holistic method of detecting changes in fi sh populations and that a precautionary approach based on this information may be more prudent than waiting for expensive, slow-coming scientifi c proof (Calamia 1999;Fraser et al. 2006).
Despite the well-documented benefi ts of TEK, there are numerous challenges researchers must be cognisant of when conducting TEK research and its application within western conservation approaches.Embedded in these research processes are issues of power, ethical dilemmas and diffi culties in combining TEK research and science in conservation and management.There is also the potential for a situation to arise where the end use of TEK research may negatively affect the TEK holders, such as through the loss of access to livelihoods activities.Researchers should also be wary of TEK being translated into data that fi ts neatly into western scientifi c knowledge systems and is then used to benefi t the researchers, scientists and conservationists, with little or no benefi t to local people involved in the research, from removal of TEK from its wider epistemological context (Drew and Henne 2006;Shackeroff and Campbell 2007).
Nonetheless, despite these challenges, complexities and the assumption of 'best practice' approaches being followed by all researchers with TEK holders, it can be highly benefi cial to work closely with fi shermen to document knowledge on whale sharks.Small-scale fi shers spend more time on the water and therefore have a higher chance of encountering whale sharks (Rowat and Engelhardt 2007) than scientists who carry out infrequent and expensive fi eld expeditions.
In this study, we investigated TEK of whale sharks through interviews with Bajo and other fi shers from fi ve settlements in the Timor and Roti Islands in eastern Indonesia.We documented customary practices and beliefs concerning whale sharks (e.g., taboo, ritual and cosmology); actual geographic locations where whale sharks have been sighted, where they were believed to aggregate or migrate, and their seasonal patterns; and information relating to human-induced threats faced by whale sharks in Indonesia (e.g., subsistence or commercial fi shing and trade of products).Additionally, we reported the results of a pilot study of techniques for community-based whale shark monitoring programmes in these communities.The primary aim of this research was to determine the presence of whale sharks in eastern Indonesia and their predictability, and local migration routes using traditional ecological knowledge, and thus, whether biological conditions exist for the potential consideration of a whale shark ecotourism initiative.The second aim was to explore prospects for community-based whale shark monitoring and ecotourism potential in this region of the Indonesian archipelago.When using the term 'biological conditions' in this paper, we are broadly referring to the presence and frequency of appearance of sharks.We also emphasise that for the purposes of this paper, we address only one factor in determining ecotourism viability; notably, whether suitable biological conditions exist to support this industry.

SITES AND METHODS
Field research for this study was conducted in eastern Indonesia in early July 2007 (through semi-structured interviews) and the months of August to November in 2007 and 2009 (through community-based documentation activities) with fi shermen from fi ve villages.

Bajo of eastern Indonesia
The Bajo of eastern Indonesia (also referred to in the literature as Bajau or Bajau Laut, and who refer to themselves as Sama people) 3 belong, ethno-linguistically, to a larger Sama-Bajau subgroup that migrated to Indonesia at the beginning of the nineteenth century and dispersed throughout eastern Indonesia over the following centuries (Stacey 2007).The number of ethnic Bajo in Indonesia is estimated to be somewhere in the range of 90,000-150,000 (Mead and Lee 2007).Bajo inhabit widespread social and economic domains through mobile livelihood strategies, which has given rise to the application of the label 'sea nomads' in both academic and popular literature.Although most Bajo live in settlements in areas with high marine biodiversity-in particular, in all fi ve provinces of Sulawesi, and provinces of Nusa Tenggara Barat (NTB) and NTT-they are generally landless.As such, the marine environment constitutes culturally defi ned living spaces (Chou 1997;Lowe 2003); Bajo spend their entire life in the vicinity of the sea and are heavily dependent on marine resources and associated livelihoods as hunters and gatherers, fi shers, sailors, boat builders, and traders.In the words of the Bajo "Laut merupakan dasar hidup" (The sea forms the basis of our life) and "Kita punya kebun di laut" (Our garden is the sea) (Stacey 2007).
Despite being increasingly recognised for their rich marine wisdom, the Bajo's migratory fi shing strategies are often considered a threat to the environment and conservation.As non-resident fi shers, the Bajo in many locations are considered responsible for overfishing and using destructive fishing techniques resulting in negative environmental impacts (Lowe 2003(Lowe , 2006;;Majors 2008;Clifton 2010)  4 .This is in contrast to perceptions by conservationists of 'fi xed' stationary coastal communities (Lowe 2006) whose strategies are often viewed as having a positive impact on the marine environment (Clifton 2010).As Lowe (2006) explains, habitation in stilt houses over the sea and mobile livelihood strategies are regarded as 'uncivilised' and 'threatening' by Indonesian government and conservation organisations (Lowe 2006).A lifestyle which involves seasonal short or long-term migratory fi shing activities suggests that "…they can't possibly care about the particular location they happen to fi nd themselves in at a given moment" (Lowe 2006: 86), and that protection of the environment and concern for overharvesting of particular species is of no concern to them as they move on.
The Bajo possess a rich marine cosmology and ritual practice, with belief in supernatural beings-ancestors of the sea who control the universe of the sea and all the creatures in it for Bajo people-and a causal relationship with spirits who inhabit the sea.This cosmology and causal relationship with spirits that inhabit the seas is governed by customary law (adat), and interactions with this spirit world and ritual activity require the services of someone with specialised knowledge (ilmu); holders and teachers of specialised ritual and maritime knowledge which is passed down through generations.Bajo religious beliefs are syncretic, whereby elements of Islam (Sunni) are fused with Bajo cosmology and ritual practice.This syncretism can be observed in various manifestations of Bajo practical religion-in their cosmology, life cycle rituals, and other rituals concerned with boats, fi shing, housing, and health (Stacey 2007).
Of all maritime populations in eastern Indonesia, the Bajo are the most mobile and have the largest ranging geographical coverage; there are settlements of Bajo communities scattered across eastern Indonesia, from north Maluku across to Sulawesi, in the south in the Flores Sea and along the Lesser Sunda Islands.For centuries, the Bajo have engaged in various forms of long-distance fi shing voyages (referred to as lama in Sama language) around what is now the Indonesian archipelago, including fi shing voyages to north and northwestern Australian waters (Stacey 2000(Stacey , 2007)).Bajo communities that originated from settlements in the Wakatobi (Tukang Besi) Islands in the province of Southeast Sulawesi currently reside at the villages of Pepela and Oenggai in Roti Island, Kera Island, and Sulamu and Kupang Bay in West Timor (see Figure 1).Given this migratory fi shing behaviour, they presented a logical group to be involved in this study of migratory species.Moreover, Bajo and other coastal communities in the east Nusa Tenggara region have themselves expressed interest in accessing alternative or supplementary livelihoods (Fox et al. 2009), and have also been identifi ed as priority benefi ciaries for the development of

Research sites
The islands of Timor and Roti are located in the Province of NTT in the southeastern region of Indonesia.We visited two villages in West Timor-the Bajo settlement on Kera Island located in Kupang Bay, and the village of Sulamu located to the north of Kupang, the capital of West Timor.The Bajo community on Kera Island originates from many Bajo villages in eastern Indonesia, but the majority of members come from Sulamu.It is only in the past four years that the Bajo have resettled on Kera Island, although the island has been inhabited by other ethnic groups in the past.At the time of our visit in 2007, there were 52 households.There are no facilities on the island: no school, water, or electricity and children that do attend school commute to Sulamu.
In Roti, the team visited three villages: the Butonese/ Rotinese village of Pepela and Bajo hamlet at Tanjung Pasir (approximately 60 households) (see Stacey 2007); Oenggai village, with a mixed Rotinese/Bajo population of approximately 300, located in east Roti; and Nemberala, a Rotinese village and popular surfi ng/beach destination.A group of fi shermen from neighbouring Ndao Island were interviewed on the beach (Figure 1).
There are already some small-scale ecotourism activities in the region, based in Kupang, Ba'a and Nemberala.In this paper, we do not include any detailed analysis of demand or feasibility of tourism activities, considering only low-scale, seasonal, marine-based ecotourism such as surfi ng and diving in a region that is identifi ed for further marine conservation initiatives (CTI 2009) and development of associated enterprises.

Interviews
We developed a series of semi-structured interview questions that were translated into Indonesian.All fi shers are relatively fl uent in the Indonesian language.These were used as a guide for semi-structured interviews undertaken during a week-long fi eld trip in 2007 (June, 30 to July, 7).Topics and questions related broadly to themes of: customary practices and beliefs concerning whale sharks (e.g., taboo, ritual and cosmology); actual geographic locations where whale sharks have been sighted, or where they are believed to aggregate or migrate, and their seasonal patterns; and information relating to threats faced by whale sharks in the region (e.g., subsistence or commercial fi shing and trade of products).A literature review helped to establish a framework for the study as well as defi ne the fi eld survey design and interview questions.The interviews focussed on information about whale sharks in the northwestern region of the Timor Sea and southeastern Indonesian region; in particular, around the waters of Roti Island, and West and East Timor.However, given that the Bajo are active across the Indonesian archipelago, information relating to a wider geographical coverage was obtained.
In 2007, seven key informant interviews (lasting between 15-30 minutes and 1-2 hours) with respected Bajo elders and holders of traditional knowledge were conducted, as well as ten informal group discussions with other groups of fi shermen living in the villages of Tanjung Pasir, Pepela, Oenggai, Nemberala and Kera Island.The selection of key informants was based on one of the author's (Stacey) past long-term ethnographic fi eld experience in most of these communities, and contacts and availability of these informants.The interviews were largely conducted in Bahasa Indonesian.During all visits to villages in 2007, the team also approached as many fi shers as possible to ask about whale sharks.These discussions were much more informal and opportunistic, based on whoever was present/available at the time.Approximately 15 fi shers were interviewed regarding reported whale shark sightings in 2009.
To assist with discussions with fi shermen, three whale shark photographic books were prepared and made available to fi shers and their families to peruse.Cartographic maps of eastern Indonesia and northern Australia were also used to aid in identifying locations and migration patterns of whale sharks.

Visual sightings and photographic documentation of whale sharks
Photo-identifi cation of individual whale sharks has been used successfully by Meekan et al. (2006), Graham and Roberts (2007), Speed et al. (2007), and Rowat et al. (2009), to identify individuals, as well as provide information on population structure and survival estimates at different locations.During two seasons (August to November), the fi rst following the fi eld survey in 2007 and again in mid-2009, we attempted to confi rm the presence of whale sharks in the NTT region by recording visual sightings by fishermen and through photographic documentation and identifi cation.
In 2007, the research team worked with members of the Bajo community at Namusein village in Kupang, who host a local non-governmental organisation (NGO)-Sama Turo, established to facilitate the education of Bajo children in NTT.The NGO is represented by Bajo members from fi ve villages in Kupang and Roti Island (Namusein, Sulamu, Kera Island, Tanjung Pasir, Oenggai).The NGO coordinator decided on the terms of their engagement and the resources required to support the monitoring activities.Through personal networks, 15 disposable Kodak underwater cameras and information sheets (in Indonesian) on how to use the cameras and correct positioning for photographing a whale shark, were delivered to the coordinator in August and September.The cameras were then distributed to members of the Bajo community in Kera Island, Oenggai and Tanjung Pasir, and the Rotinese community at Batu Tua in West Roti.Some funds were provided to help with the costs of camera distribution and boat fuel.Fishermen were informed that if they were successful in photographing a whale shark, they would be rewarded fi nancially.One of the authors visited Kupang to collect the one camera returned in late 2007.
In 2009, a different approach was used, whereby we contracted Nusa Cendana University (UNDANA) staff to visit communities, identify fi shermen for camera distribution, undertake briefi ngs and training on how to use cameras to take photographs of whale sharks, and collect cameras.Four visits were undertaken by the UNDANA team between late August and November to Kera Island and Sulamu in West Timor and Tanjung Pasir, Pepela, Oenggai and Nemberala in Roti Island: 13 cameras and snorkelling equipment were distributed during the fi rst fi eld visit, and fi shermen were given a small amount of money to help cover the costs of fuel.One camera was returned in late 2009.
The photographs were developed and compared, using the pattern recognition programme I3S (Speed et al. 2007), with a database photo library of 1,000 individual whale sharks [collected between 1992 and 2006 from localities including Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia (WA), Christmas Island, the Maldives, Seychelles, and Mozambique], held by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (Speed et al. 2007).

Analysis
The results of fi eld interviews were analysed qualitatively and written up as records of conversations, as well as literal translations of recorded interviews.Within the limitations of the brief pilot study, the information was cross-checked between Bajo from various settlements, and information and identifi cation of emerging common themes developed into summary results.

Bajo customary practices and beliefs concerning whale sharks
The Bajo hold specialised customary practices (adat) concerning whale sharks (kareo dede in Sama-Bajo language).One Bajo fi shermen interviewed in Tanjung Pasir stated "Nenek moyang dilarang dapat hiu kareo" (Our ancestors forbid us to catch whale sharks) and "Kalau dapat harus lepas" (If you do catch one [e.g., by accident in a net], you must release it).Customary law prohibits the hunting of whale sharks and the Bajo therefore do not hunt the species.This fi ts within the overall framework of Bajo cosmology (see Stacey 2007).
According to a Bajo elder from Sulamu village "Ikan dijaga oleh dewa" (The fi sh [whale shark] is guarded by a spirit).Other large marine creatures, such as whales, are also considered to be guarded by spirits, and these can protect or come to the aid of fi shermen in times of need or misfortune at sea.For example, one of the fi shermen from Kera Island recounted a story about a boat which sank near Savu Island.The crew were saved from drowning by a whale shark; they held onto its fi n and it took them to safety.As a result of such beliefs, the killing of whale sharks (and whales) is considered taboo (pemali in Sama-Bajau language).
Interviews with Rotinese and Butonese fi shermen from Pepela did not indicate any customary beliefs specifi c to whale sharks.

Whale shark sightings, migration, and seasonal patterns
Most of the Bajo and other fi shermen interviewed reported that they usually saw whale sharks swimming alone or in pairs when they were near the surface, in particular, in locations in northern Australia, eastern Indonesia, and in the seas that are now part of Timor Leste.Whale sharks were constantly moving, following the currents on a seasonal basis in search of food.They were most often sighted during the Indonesian east monsoon period beginning in August, through to the early west monsoon of November or December.
Fishermen rarely saw whale sharks aggregate.Based on this, they believed that the sharks bred infrequently and only ever produced one or two offspring.One fi sherman from Tanjung Pasir, Pepela, who had over 20 years of experience fi shing in the Timor and Arafura Seas, reported that he had seen fi ve or more sharks together in offshore waters south of Sumbawa Island, a group in deeper waters towards Lombok Island, and eight sharks north of Darwin, while shark fi shing in the Arafura Sea in the 1980s.
The Bajo and other fi shermen we spoke to in Tanjung Pasir, who had also fi shed in the Timor Sea and northwest region of Australia for decades, had regularly sighted whale sharks in Australian waters, in particular, around the vicinity of Ashmore Reef, and further south towards Scott Reef.These same fi shermen had sighted whale sharks in the NTT region-in the waters south of Roti Island, in the straits between Timor (Kupang) and Semau Island, and in the waters around Kera Island (Figure 2).To the north, sharks were sighted in the Mako Straits (between Adonara and Lomblem Islands) and Lambardi Straits (between Lomblem and Pantar Islands), and in the Savu Sea between Timor and Flores Islands.Whale sharks were also sighted in the region of southeast Sulawesi-around the Wakatobi Islands and in the Buton Straits, and in the Arafura Sea close to the West Papuan coast.
Rotinese fi shermen from Pepela reported that when it was windy, whale sharks came to the surface of the sea and chased schools of small fi sh (ikan halus).Fishermen reported that, when sighted, whale sharks were most commonly engaged in ram fi lter-feeding, where the sharks would swim slowly at the surface with their mouths open (Taylor 2007).
The Bajo from Kera Island and Sulamu village reported that the whale sharks they saw in the region targeted pelagic fi sh (fi ngerlings).These were not identifi ed, but may include mackerel and tuna.Fishermen noted that around the time of our visit (July, 2007), the pelagic fi sh were just starting to spawn, coming in from deep waters into Kupang Bay and travelling north along the Timor coast.As small fi sh developed in the shallow coastal waters during August to October, the whale sharks came in to feed on them.As pelagic fi sh grew bigger they moved offshore and the whale sharks also moved away, perhaps following the prey fi sh.
Fishermen stated that whale sharks usually travelled in deep water and were therefore only seen when they came to the surface, usually when chasing small fi sh.The most common time to see whale sharks was during the months of August to December, which coincided with departures of sharks from Ningaloo Reef in WA.Generally, the sharks were not sighted during the early period of the east monsoon when waters were still choppy, but were seen with the onset of lighter wind conditions in late August and September.Bajo fi shermen from Oenggai village on Roti Island saw whale sharks in deeper waters directly offshore from the village and in the region to the northeast (Figure 2).Whale sharks were often seen when bait fi sh were present, and often at the same time as manta rays (Manta spp).The fi shermen usually saw sharks in August, but also at other times, and knew that the whale sharks were not dangerous as they only ate small fi sh and shrimp-like crustaceans.Bajo fi shermen did not harm whale sharks, for reasons outlined above.
Pepelan fi shermen reported that they often saw large whale sharks in the region of West Roti, between Dana Island and the mainland, especially at Batu Heleana (a popular tuna fi shing area that is protected from strong wind during the west monsoon), Landau Island and the village of Batu Tua (Figure 2).During the months of November and December, particularly once the rains began, whale sharks came to the surface to eat small bait fi sh (ikan halus -'neri').Fishermen also stated that if the wind was strong, sometimes the whale sharks came to the surface in protected areas, especially near coral reefs.One fi sherman stated he believed whale sharks were in the area all year round, but he only saw them when they came to the surface with the rains at the start of the west monsoon and in the presence of smaller fi sh.Geographical features that may support the presence of whale sharks and their food sources included the presence of a strait where strong currents create uplifts of nutrients that attract small fi sh.Additionally, according to fi shermen, during the west monsoon, the area is protected from westerly winds.However, whale sharks were also sighted in the area during the later east monsoon months.One fi sherman had reported seeing up to fi ve whale sharks together in the West Roti area.
Fishermen from Pepela also stated that they regularly saw whale sharks around Rotinese waters, off Pantai Roti, Tanjung Usu and Kambing Island, (northeast Roti), in waters close to Tobololong village, at the southern tip of West Timor coast, in the straits between Sulamu and Kera Island, and in deep waters to the south of Sumbawa Island.
The crew of a boat from Ndao Island at Nemberala reported that they saw whale sharks during the months of August to September in waters between West Roti and Ndao Island.A fi sherman from Sulamu reported that he had often seen whale sharks in waters off the south coast of Timor Leste-south of Covalima District, prior to 1999 when a Bajo community existed at Hera village in Dili (Figure 2).In this area, whale sharks visited to feed on small fi sh (ikan tembong).
Whale sharks are present and regularly sighted in the West Timor-Roti area during the months of July to November.Reported whale shark sightings by fishermen during the period from early August to late November 2007 and August to November 2009 are shown in Figure 3.However, this is not indicative of actual numbers of whale sharks in the region during this time of year, and the time of year relates only to the actual times the project teams were active and visiting villages (late August to early November in 2009).The results are consistent with the information provided by fi shermen relating to knowledge on whale shark locations and behaviour collected during July 2007 (Figure 3).In 2007, 13 whale sharks were sighted, and in 2009, 16 whale sharks were sighted by fi shermen from the fi ve villages.Whale sharks were most commonly sighted in waters between Kera Island and Sulamu village on West Timor, and the north of Kupang Bay; around Pepela and Oenggai waters, Roti Island, but were also seen in waters southwest of Roti near Nemberala village and small offshore islands (Figure 3).

Anthropogenic threats faced by whale sharks
With the price of whale shark fi ns, meat and skin generally low in NTT and Indonesia (White and Cavanagh 2007), whale sharks are not as attractive a target species compared to other areas in Southeast and South Asia.In addition, most of the small boat or artisanal fi shermen do not have the technology to hunt such a large fi sh.However, there were some occasional accidental catches while fi shermen were targeting predatory sharks or netting for fi sh.We were informed by fi shermen in Kera Island, Sulamu and Pepela in 2007 that two to three whale sharks had been caught in the past 12 months.One shark was caught by a Pepelan fi sherman about three months before our visit in waters south of Roti Island while the crew were shark fi shing (for fi ns) from a small motorised boat using longline gear.The whale shark, approximately three metres in length, was lashed to the side of the boat and landed in Pepela.The skin and meat (of a total weight of 320 kg) were salted, dried and sold to a local trader in Pepela and shipped to Surabaya.The meat sold for USD 0.32 per kg and the skin for USD 0.27 per kg.The fi n was sold to a trader in Kupang for USD 8.55 per kg (a total of 23 kg).The skin was said to have been used to make purses and bags.
Fishermen from Kera Island and Pepela reported that in 2005 or 2006, a whale shark was caught accidentally by Namusein fi shermen while net fi shing for tuna (lamparang) in Kupang Bay.The 11 m whale shark was landed on the beach at Namusein.The Department of Fisheries staff were alerted and they instructed the fi shermen to tow the whale shark out into the bay and release it.
A fi sherman from Oenggai village on Roti Island had heard a story of a whale shark being landed in Sulamu (Kupang area).But after this, there was sickness in the village and since then, no whale sharks have been caught.

Photographic documentation for monitoring
Of the 15 cameras distributed in 2007, only one was returned.The developed fi lm revealed good quality photos of one shark (see Figure 4) which were analysed in order to determine whether a match could be made in the photo-library of the whale sharks visiting Ningaloo Reef.To date, no match has been made for this particular individual in the AIMS database In 2009, 14 cameras were distributed, but only one Bajo fi shermen from Kera Island managed to photograph a whale shark successfully-the same fi shermen who successfully photographed a whale shark in 2007.The images were processed and spot-checked in the AIMS database, but no match was found with any whale sharks on the existing database for Ningaloo Reef.

DISCUSSION
Our research determined the presence and location of whale sharks in the East Nusa Tenggara region of eastern Indonesia using traditional ecological knowledge, explored Bajo relationships with whale sharks, and tested approaches for community-based monitoring.Our goal was to determine whether suitable biological conditions exist to support ecotourism based on whale sharks in this region of the Indonesian Archipelago.
The longevity and migratory behaviour of whale sharks makes it very diffi cult and expensive to collect long-term data (Theberge and Dearden 2006).Our study provides an example of the potential for combining traditional ecological knowledge and new technology to effectively monitor rarely-sighted migratory species such as whale sharks.We documented customary beliefs and law (adat) of the Bajo that prohibit them from harming or hunting whale sharks.These systems are part of a wider marine cosmology based on belief in, and causal relationship with, spirits who inhabit the sea (Lowe 2003;Stacey 2007).However, it is not known whether Bajo in all villages adhere strictly to these customary practices.Regardless of how closely these practices are followed, their very existence provides a useful basis for discussion regarding conservation of the species.
Bajo and Rotinese fi shermen from settlements in NTT commonly sight whale sharks in various locations in the Timor Sea, around islands in NTT and beyond to other parts of Indonesia, and Timor Leste waters.Sightings are most common during the months of August to December.Whale sharks are typically seen alone or in pairs at the surface of the water feeding on small fi sh, and shark migration patterns may be related to the timing and location of fi sh spawning.While our work suggests a seasonal presence, more information is still required.Further research is needed over 2-3 consecutive years to determine, more precisely, how many sharks visit the area, and the links between sightings and food sources.Knowledge of the predictability of visitations is essential if ecotourism industries are to be developed.Our study shows that ecotourism and community-based monitoring could provide a means to supply this information.
It appears that there is no commercial fi shery or wellestablished commercial market for whale shark products in NTT.Incidental and/or opportunistic harvesting of whale sharks by local fi shermen occurs both in this area and in the wider region of the Indonesian Archipelago, but information on the extent and scale of this harvest is poor.Reasons for a lack of markets include customary beliefs of some fi shing groups, lack of available local technology to harvest these large animals, lack of post-harvesting equipment such as freezers, as well as low prices for whale shark products such as fl esh and skin.Even without a market within Indonesia, external demand for whale shark products could stimulate harvest of the species (Fowler 2000;Camhi et al. 2009) as occurred in the Indian state of Gujarat (Hanfee 2001).Given the extensive subsistence and artisanal fi sheries that operate in Kupang Bay and the NTT area, overfi shing of whale shark food sources may pose a greater potential threat to whale shark populations in NTT than actual harvesting, whether incidental or targeted.
Although whale sharks have been harvested as part of the traditional whaling fi shery in Lembata since at least the 1970s, it is also not known what impact the harvest has on the population size.The villages of Lamalera have not supported attempts by non-government conservation organisations, including the World Wide Fund for Nature, or the Government of Indonesia to introduce conservation measures and limit traditional harvests of whales and other mega-fauna in the region (Toohey 2010).For this reason, it appears unlikely that villagers would be interested in ecotourism based on whale sharks (Barnes 2005).In fact, tourism ventures already exist at Lamalera, based on participation in traditional hunting activities, with 40-50 fee-paying tourists a year involved in whale hunting in 1999 (Severin 1999).
Our research also suggests that certain ethno-linguistic groups are more culturally predisposed to undertake conservation monitoring than others.Bajo are maritimeorientated, both economically and culturally, and are more confi dent regarding close encounters with whale sharks than some other groups such as Rotinese (even though all fi shermen report that they are not harmful).However, it is physically and mentally challenging to dive into the ocean and swim with a whale shark that may be more than 7 m in length, manoeuvre into the correct position and take a photograph.Although our returns of cameras were very low, with only one person from a group of 15 fi shermen photographing a whale shark in two separate years, considering the minimal time and resources that were available to the project to monitor this activity, we do believe that this return reveals an opportunity for involvement of some individual Bajo to participate in training and receive remuneration for photographic identifi cation of sharks, and shows promise for prospects of monitoring and conservation of whale sharks in the Timor-Roti region.
However, the low returns may illustrate some of these challenges and issues associated with TEK application in conservation research (Drew and Henne 2006;Shackeroff and Campbell 2007).The goals of our research-using Bajo TEK for whale shark documentation-may not equate with how Bajo believe TEK should be used in new ways and outside of customary contexts.Other practical issues that might limit monitoring by Bajo involve the diffi culties of requiring fi shermen to do this work while they are on fi shing trips (inshore or distant shore) that earn income.Fishermen from some of these communities are often engaged in longdistance fi shing trips, especially during the east monsoon season (Stacey 2007) when the seas are calm and potentially during times when whale sharks are most likely to be present in the area.Consequently, scheduling of monitoring with income-earning activities is an important consideration.Any future work will need to address issues of cultural, and even individual, suitability, as well as dealing with the trade-offs in employing fi shermen full-time on whale shark monitoring for short periods (i.e., a few weeks at a time) with the attendant impacts on regular fi shing activities.
Our research challenges the commonly-held perception in the conservation literature that the Bajo have only negative environmental impacts through the use of damaging fi shing techniques and do not concern themselves with sustainable practices (Lowe 2003(Lowe , 2006)).At least for whale sharks, our work shows that the mobility of this group, their knowledge, beliefs and conservation-orientated ethic could be of value to the management of this migratory species.There are culturally-driven prohibitions on the exploitation of whale sharks among the Bajo, who are one of the most widespread maritime-adapted ethnic groups in eastern Indonesia.Bajo world views and beliefs about whale sharks broadly align with conservation goals, which is not always the case as TEK can sometimes confl ict with conservation of a species (Shackeroff and Campbell 2007).These cultural constraints could be encouraged through development of economic incentives, including paid involvement in activities such as whale shark photo-identification and environmental monitoring.The former could provide a cost-effective means of helping to further investigate the links between whale sharks visiting Western Australia and those found moving seasonally through eastern Indonesia (and Timor Leste) using whale shark photoidentifi cation techniques and database searches.Engaging the fi shers in the conservation and protection of whale sharks could have added pay-offs in developing supplementary income opportunities for Bajo and other fi shers who have operated in the now disrupted traditional Indonesian fi shery of the Timor Sea (Stacey 2007).
Examples of ecotourism based on whale sharks or other megafauna from other parts of the world suggest that consideration of any such venture should proceed with caution and consider the broader social, cultural, economic and political context in which they may operate (Campbell 2010).Just as there are culturally driven prohibitions on whale shark exploitation, there may be community cultural beliefs that do not align with ecotourism interests (such as inappropriate tourist apparel and behaviour, or the creation of community dependence on the enterprise to the detriment of other livelihood strategies) (Cárdenas-Torres et al. 2007).It is necessary to determine if real benefi ts will fl ow to local communities and whether these benefi ts are distributed equitably (Bookbinder et al. 1998;Diaz-Amador 2005;Quiros 2005;Cárdenas-Torres et al. 2007).Community dependence on tourism activities may be risky as the number of visitors can also be affected by factors outside the control of the industry (Cárdenas-Torres et al. 2007), such as political instability.Finally, others researchers argue that the evidence is slim with regard to the contribution or add-on benefi ts of ecotourism to the conservation agenda (Ballantyne et al. 2009;Meletis and Harrison 2010).Such ventures could cause harm or disturbance to whale sharks and their habitats (Diaz-Amador 2005;Quiros 2005Quiros , 2007)).
Biologists and marine scientists argue that multiple approaches are critical for the conservation of whale sharks through determining migratory pathways by satellite tagging, international collaboration for management across political boundaries and monitoring of population abundance using capture-mark-recapture at aggregation sites (Fowler 2000;Speed et al. 2007;Bradshaw et al. 2008).Our study shows that research involving both social and natural science knowledge (Drew and Henne 2006;Fraser et al. 2006) is another tool that could be used to better equip managers to develop appropriate conservation strategies.As well as international instruments to promote multilateral management and conservation of the species, ultimately, the best outcomes for the preservation of migratory megafauna such as whale sharks in this region of Indonesia will be achieved through a combination of western science, traditional ecological knowledge, community-based monitoring and small-scale ecotourism businesses that provide real economic and social benefi ts to local peoples.

Figure 1
Figure 1 Location of fi ve communities visited in Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia

Figure 2
Figure 2Approximate locations where whale sharks were sighted by fi shermen in Timor, Roti and Timor Leste waters

Figure 3
Figure 3 Approximate locations of whale sharks sighted by fi shermen in Timor-Roti waters during August-November 2007 and July-September 2009

Figure 4 A
Figure 4 A photograph taken by a Bajo fi sherman from Sulamu village, Kupang Bay, in late October 2007, of a whale shark sighted approximately 3 nm north of Kera Island Photo credit: Charles Darwin University