Browsing by Author "Swallow, Brent M."

Now showing 1 - 26 of 26

Assessing Collective Action Using Spatial Household Data
(1997) Swallow, Brent M.; Wangila, Justine; Tesfaemichael, Negussie; Okello, Onyango; Kruska, Russell
"The micro-economic theory of agrarian development focuses largely on the effects of economic institutions on the efficiency of resource use, investment, agricultural production and exchange. Four types of agrarian institutions are noted as having fundamental effects on these economic outcomes: property rights, organizations for collective action, factor and output markets, and credit and insurance contracts. The System-Wide Programme for Property Rights and Collective Action is concerned with the effects of property rights and collective action institutions."
Assessing the Relationships Between Property Rights and Technology Adoption in Smallholder Agriculture: A Review of Issues and Emperical Methods
(2000) Place, Frank; Swallow, Brent M.
"Studies of the relationships between property rights and technology adoption are complicated in several respects. First, there are challenges involved in defining and measuring property rights and tenure security. Second, there are several different valid purposes for undertaking such studies and each purpose may require a different approach. Third, there are a number of difficult theoretical and empirical issues involved in such studies, particularly in defining technology, identifying key dimensions of property rights, and accounting for the endogeneous determination of property rights. Through a synthesis and evaluation of previous studies, this paper identifies key issues and develops guidelines for conducting research on the relationships between property rights and technology adoption in smallholder agriculture. It seeks to benefit researchers and policy makers wishing to undertake or interpret empirical research. The topics addressed in the paper are: definition of scope and terms; key issues pertaining to the relationships between technology adoption and property rights variables; data collection and measurement issues; and analyses and interpretation of findings. The primary target groups for this paper are researchers and policy analysts."
Collective Action in Space: Assessing How Collective Action Varies Across an African Landscape
(2000) Swallow, Brent M.; Wangila, Justine; Mulatu, Woudyalew; Okello, Onyango; McCarthy, Nancy
"This paper develops and applies a new approach for analyzing the spatial aspects of individual adoption of a technology that produces a mixed public-private good. The technology is an animal insecticide treatment called a ?pouron? that individual households buy and apply to their animals. Private benefits accrue to households whose animals are treated, while the public benefits accrue to all those who own animals within an area of effective suppression. A model of household demand for pourons is presented. As for a private good, household demand for the variable input depends upon output price, input cost, and household characteristics. Input costs for pouron treatments include both the market price of the pourons and the transaction costs that the household must incur to obtain the treatments. Demand also depends upon the way that each household expects its neighbors to respond to one?s own behavior. Free-riding is expected in communities with no tradition or formal organization to support collective action. Greater cooperation is expected in communities that have organizations that reward cooperative behavior and punish deviant behavior. Data for estimation of the model were collected for all of the 5,000 households that reside within the study area of 350 square kilometers in southwest Ethiopia. Geographic reference data were collected for every household using portable Geographic Positioning System units. GIS software was used to generate spatial variables. Variables for distance from the household to the nearest treatment center and number of cattle-owning neighbors within a 1- kilometer radius of the household were created. The density of cattle-owning neighbors was used as a measure of the potential benefits from cooperation; this variable was expected to have a positive effect on household pouron demand in communities able to support effective collective action and a negative effect in communities not able to support effective collective action. A set of community binary variables was interacted with the density variable to capture differences between communities. The results confirm the importance of the household-level variables. The results also indicate large differences in ability to cooperate between local administrative units. Everything else equal, the areas least able to cooperate were located farthest from the treatment center, were ethnically heterogenous, and had a different ethnic composition than areas around the treatment centers."
Compensation and Rewards for Environmental Services in the Developing World: Framing Pan-Tropical Analysis and Comparison
(2009) Swallow, Brent M.; Kallesoe, Mikkel F.; Iftikhar, Usman A.; van Noordwijk, Meine; Bracer, Carina; Scherr, Sara J.; Raju, K. Vengamma; Poats, Susan V.; Duraiappah, Anantha Kumar; Ochieng, Benson O.; Mallee, Hein; Rumley, Rachael
"This is the first of a series of papers that review the state of knowledge and practice regarding compensation and rewards for environmental services in the developing world. The paper begins with an assessment of the historical development of compensation and reward mechanisms within a broader context of changing approaches to nature conservation and environmental policy. The assessment shows that greater interest in compensation and reward mechanisms has emerged within a policy context of changing approaches to nature conservation and flexible multi-stakeholder approaches to environmental management. In the developing world, an even greater variety of perspectives has emerged on the opportunities and threats for using compensation and rewards for environmental services. Within that background, the paper clarifies key concepts—including the distinction between compensation and reward —and presents a conceptual framework for typifying and characterizing different types of mechanisms that link ecosystem stewards, ecosystem service beneficiaries, and intermediaries."
Conceptual and Methodological Lessons for Improving Watershed Management and Research
(2001) Knox, Anna; Swallow, Brent M.; Johnson, Nancy
"Watersheds connect land units through flows of water, nutrients, and sedimentlinking farmers, fishers, and urban dwellers inintricate relationshis. How these flows affect peoples livelihoods depends on the biophysical attributes of the watershed as well as on the policies and institutions that shape human interactions within the watershed. Watersheds are managed at various social and spatial scales--from community management of small catchments to the transnational management of extensive river systems and lake basins. "The System-wide Program on Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi) convened a workshop in March 2000 to consider some of the key is sues in watershed management research. The workshop was organized around the themes of: 1) collective action and property rights; 2) social-spatial scale; 3) stakeholder participation in watershed management research; and 4) assessment of the impacts of watershed management. This brief summarizes some of the insights that came out of the workshop." .
The Conditions for Functional Mechanisms of Compensation and Reward for Environmental Services
(2010) Swallow, Brent M.; Leimona, Beria; Yatich, Thomas; Velarde, Sandra J.
"Mechanisms of compensation and reward for environmental services (CRES) are becoming increasingly contemplated as means for managing human–environment interactions. Most of the functional mechanisms in the tropics have been developed within the last 15 years; many developing countries still have had little experience with functional mechanisms. We consider the conditions that foster the origin and implementation of functional mechanisms. Deductive and inductive approaches are combined. Eight hypotheses are derived from theories of institution and policy change. Five case studies, from Latin America, Africa, and Asia, are then reviewed according to a common framework. The results suggest the following to be important conditions for functional CRES mechanisms: (1) localized scarcity for particular environmental services, (2) influence from international environmental agreements and international organizations, (3) government policies and public attitudes favoring a mixture of regulatory and market-based instruments, and (4) security of individual and group property rights."
Do Contingent Contributions Imply Contingent Valuations? Assessing Willingness to Contribute to Local Public Goods in Kenya
(1995) Swallow, Brent M.; Kamara, Damaris W.; Echessah, Protase N.; Curry, John J.
"Tsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease that affects the health of people and animals across much of Africa. While several traps and targets have been developed to suppress tsetse, there have been few examples of self-sustaining 'community-based' programmes. We are assessing the prospects for community-based tsetse control in Busia District, Kenya. "A contingent valuation survey was implemented to assess willingness to contribute money and labour to tsetse control in 6 villages. Respondents were presented with a hypothetical situation and questioned about the maximum amounts of money and/or labour they would be willing to contribute if the situation became real. Econometric techniques were used to test hypotheses about factors affecting the types and levels of contributions individuals were willing to make. "Two villages were then selected to receive assistance to implementing tsetse control. Those villages have been engaged in a participatory process of education and mobilization for tsetse control. Community organizations have been formed and decisions taken at village meetings. A survey of 'planned contributions' was conducted after decisions about the amount of money each household would contribute were made. Actual contributions are being monitored, particularly for the 60 households included in the initial survey. The results show marked differences between contingent, planned and actual contributions. While useful for planning purposes, we postulate that none of those measures reflect the contingent or actual value of the control."
The Effects of Scales, Flows and Filters on Property Rights and Collective Action in Watershed Management
(2001) Swallow, Brent M.; Garrity, Dennis P.; van Noordwijk, Meine
"Research and policy on property rights, collective action and watershed management requires good understanding of ecological and socio-political processes at different social-spatial scales. On-farm soil erosion is a plot or farm-level problem that can be mitigated through more secure property rights for individual farmers, while the sedimentation of streams and deterioration of water quality are larger-scale problems that may require more effective collective action and/or more secure property rights at the village or catchment scale. Differences in social-political contexts across nations and regions also shape property rights and collective action institutions. For example, circumstances in the Lake Victoria basin in East Africa require particular attention to collective action and property rights problems in specific 'hot spot' areas where insecure tenure leads to overuse or under-investment. Circumstances in the uplands of Southeast Asia require analysis of the opportunities for negotiating more secure rights for farmers in exchange for stronger collective action by farmer groups for maintaining essential watershed functions."
Getting Access to Adequate Water: Community Organizing, Women and Social Change in Western Kenya
(2005) Roy, Jessica; Crow, Ben; Swallow, Brent M.
"This paper presents initial findings from research exploring the influence of community organizing and gender relations on access to water in Western Kenya. Improved access to water promises significant progress in the lives of many of Africa’s rural and urban poor, but few rural communities in Africa have been able to self-organize to significantly improve their access to water. This research seeks to illuminate the social conditions, rights and practices that may hinder or facilitate community organization to achieve better access to water. Two particularly intriguing findings emerge: 1) amongst a wide range of social conditions that hinder the founding of water projects is a hint of male anxiety about how women may use time saved from water collection, and 2) in one community where the obstacles to organizing were overcome, and a successful piped water system installed women, were able to use their time saved from water collection to enhance household tea production and establish a group that has generated new income from casual labour and the production and sale of new crops."
Hydronomics and Terranomics in the Nyando Basin of Western Kenya
(2005) Onyango, Leah; Swallow, Brent M.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth
"This paper uses the concepts of hydronomics as systems of rules that define water management and terranomics as systems of rules that define land management and explores their linkages in rainfed agriculture and irrigation areas in the Nyando basin. The upper reaches of the basin have experienced a change from large scale commercial farming to more intensive small holder farming while in the flood prone lower reaches of the basin several irrigation schemes have been set up. The basin has a complex history of settlement, irrigation development and land tenure over the last 50 years, resulting in distinct patterns of poverty, land use, water management and land tenure across the basin. The changes in management of land have a corresponding effect on access to and use of water in the basin but there are no corresponding policy changes to ensure that no one is losing out."
Institutions, Governance and Incentives in Common Property Regimes for African Rangelands
(1998) Swallow, Brent M.; Bromley, Daniel W.
"About 14% of the world's cattle and 21% of its sheep and goats are found in Africa on a land base that comprises 25% of the world's total area of rangelands. Most of these rangelands are or have in the past been managed under traditional systems of communal tenure. Regrettably, the wide variety of institutional arrangements, structures of governance and incentives that characterize these common property regimes have not been well understood or been the subject of much analysis. This paper attempts to fill part of this knowledge gap by providing a framework for the analysis of common property rangeland regimes on the basis of some selected examples in Africa."
International Symposium on Property Rights, Risk, and Livestock Development
(1999) Luseno, Winnie K.; McCarthy, Nancy; Hazell, Peter; Kirk, Michael; Swallow, Brent M.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth
"Livestock production is one of few options available to millions of impoverished people who live in arid and semi-arid areas of sub-Saharan African (SSA). Livestock are flexible and fungible: they can be moved in response to variable rainfall conditions and can be purchased or sold in response to variable market conditions. Livestock can supply animal traction and play key roles in the transfer and cycling of nutrients for crop production. At the same time, livestock production is often associated with low productivity and low offtake, with land degradation, and with resource conflicts among pastoral groups and between pastoralists and farmers."
Invasion of Prosopis Juliflora and Local Livelihoods: Case Study from the Lake Baringo Area of Kenya
(2005) Mwangi, Esther; Swallow, Brent M.
"This paper presents an assessment of the livelihood effects, costs of control, and local perceptions of the invasive tree, Prosopis juliflora, on rural residents in the Lake Baringo area of Kenya. Global concern about deforestation caused by fuelwood shortages, prompted introduction of Prosopis juliflora to the Lake Baringo area in the early 1980s. Prosopis juliflora is in IUCN's new list of 100 world's worst invasive alien species. The Prosopis juliflora invasion in the study area has recently attracted national attention and contradictory responses from responsible agencies. Unlike some other parts of the world where it has been introduced, Prosopis juliflora potential benefits have not been captured and few people in the Lake Baringo area realize net benefits from the widespread presence of the tree. Strong local support for eradication and replacement appears to be well justified. Sustainable utilization may require considerable investment in the development of new commercial enterprises."
Lecciones Conceptuales y Metodológicas para Mejorar el Manejo e Investigación en Cuencas Hidrográficas
(2001) Knox, Anna; Swallow, Brent M.; Johnson, Nancy
"Las cuencas hidrográficas tienden a unificar unidades de terreno a través del flujo de agua, nutrientes y sedimentos; hacen enlaces entre agricultores, pescadores y habitantes urbanos en relaciones complicadas. La manera en que estos flujos afectan la subsistencia de las personas depende tanto de los atributos biofísicos de la cuenca hidrográfica como de las políticas e instituciones que moldean las interacciones humanas dentro de ella. Las cuencas se manejan a múltiples escalas espacialesdesde el manejo de pequeños embalses por comunidades locales hasta el manejo internacional de extensos sistemas fluviales y cuencas lacustres. "El programa del Sistema CGiAR sobre Acción Colectiva y Derechos de Propiedad (CAPRi) realizó un taller en marzo del 2000 para considerar algunos de los asuntos fundamentales de la investigación sobre el manejo de las cuencas hidrográficas. El taller fue organizado alrededor de los siguientes temas: 1) la acción colectiva y los derechos de propiedad; 2) la escala social-espacial; 3) la participación de los interesados en la investigación sobre el manejo de cuencas; y 4) la evaluación de los impactos del manejo de cuencas hidrográficas. En este resumen se tratan algunas de las ideas que resultaron del taller."
Localizing Demand and Supply of Environmental Services: Interaction with Property Rights, Collective Action, and the Welfare of the Poor
(2005) Swallow, Brent M.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Noordwijk, Meine van
"Payments for environmental services (PES) are increasingly discussed as appropriate mechanisms for matching the demand for environmental services with the incentives of land users whose actions modify the supply of those environmental services. While there has been considerable discussion of the institutional mechanisms for PES, relatively little attention has been given to the inter-relationships between PES institutions and other rural institutions. This paper presents and builds upon the proposition that both the function and welfare effects of PES institutions depend crucially on the co-institutions of collective action (CA) and property rights (PR). Experience from around the developing world has shown that smallholder land users can be efficient producers of environmental services of value to larger communities and societies. However, experience also shows that the international and national institutions that govern PES are often designed in ways that entail transaction costs that cannot be feasibly met by individual smallholders. Collective action can provide a mechanism for farmers to coordinate actions over large areas to provide environmental services such as biodiversity and watershed protection. Collective action also offers the potential to reduce the costs of monitoring and certification usually required to obtain payments for the services. However, the nature of the environmental services will influence the scale and type of collective action needed, the bargaining power of smallholders, and the investment or reinvestment requirements. The relationships between property rights and environmental services are more complex. The creation of PES institutions itself actually represents the creation of new forms of property and responsibility, with all of the tensions and tradeoffs that are entailed. How are balances struck, for example, between peopleÂ's responsibilities not to pollute and the need to compensate people for foregoing polluting activities? What about balances between constitutional rights to safe environment and the right to earn a livelihood? In carbon sequestration arrangements, secure property rights are often seen as a necessary pre-condition for binding contracts, even though collective forms of property may generate high quality environmental services. On the other hand, environmental services can influence property rights, notably where land or water tenure are given as rewards for certain types of services, land use, or stewardship. The type of environmental service, and the possibility of exclusion it provides, is also likely to influence the type of property rights. This paper presents a conceptual framework that clarifies the inter-linkages between property rights, collective action, payment for environmental services, and the welfare of smallholder land users. The framework is centered on concerns of function and welfare effects of PES. The functional perspective clarifies the effects of collective action and property rights institutions on the supply of environmental services. The welfare perspective considers smallholders as one of several potential sources of supply, sometimes directly competing against large landowners and public sector providers. Using this conceptual framework can help to identify conditions under which smallholders are likely to be able to participate in payment for environmental services schemes. Greater consideration of the linkages between PES and other rural institutions can lead to more equitable outcomes, particularly by 1) suggesting how collective action can be used to overcome transaction costs and barriers to participation by smallholders, and 2) identifying mechanisms through which managers of small private parcels or areas of common property can be rewarded for environmental stewardship through PES."
Multiple Functions of Common Property Regimes
(1997) Swallow, Brent M.; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Jackson, Lee Ann; Williams, Timothy O.; White, T. Anderson
"The papers in this panel explore several dimensions of multiple-function common property regimes. The overview paper explores the conceptual and analytical challenges of multiple-function common property regimes. Two papers discuss the importance of understanding the competitive and complementary nature of different uses of water and land resources by different users. The final paper focuses on a less tangible function of common property: construction and maintenance of social capital."
The Multiple Products, Functions and Users of Natural Resource Systems
(1996) Swallow, Brent M.
"This paper presents an analytical framework for guiding studies of the use and management of natural resource systems in which: (i) several goods and services of value are produced; (ii) resource users have multiple objectives vis-a-vis collective management of the natural resource system; and (iii) sub-groups of resource users are distinguished by their property rights, endowments and preferences. The framework is motivated and validated by reference to rangeland systems in Africa. Several implications for research and policy emerge."
Property Rights, Collective Action and Poverty: The Role of Institutions for Poverty Reduction
(2004) Di Gregorio, Monica; Hagedorn, Konrad; Kirk, Michael; Korf, Benedikt; McCarthy, Nancy; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Swallow, Brent M.
From Introduction: "...This paper presents a conceptual framework for examining how property rights and collective action can contribute to poverty reduction, including both external interventions and action by poor people themselves. We begin with definitions of the key concepts--poverty, property rights, and collective action. We then turn to an examination of how property rights and collective action are related to poverty outcomes, building upon the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework. This interdisciplinary framework allows analysis of a wide range of interactions, and is useful for eliciting relevant questions for examination in any particular case. At the heart of this framework is the action arena, which is shaped by initial conditions and, in turn, determines a range of outcomes. Applying this framework to poverty reduction, we present an analysis of the initial conditions of poverty, including the asset base, risks and vulnerability, legal structure and power relations. We next look at the dynamics of actors both poor and non-poor and how they use the tangible and intangible resources they have to shape their livelihoods and the institutions in which they live. We conclude with a discussion of how this framework can improve our understanding of the outcomes in terms of changes in poverty status. "Discussing such complex and dynamic processes in one paper requires generalization, yet we know that both the material and institutional conditions of the poor vary from place to place, and change over time. Recognizing the importance of local circumstances, we have phrased many of the key points as propositions, to be considered for different situations, but not necessarily applying to all. We hope that this will provide a basis for further thinking and discussion; and in particular, for further empirical analysis, which can advance our understanding of the role collective action and property rights can play in poverty reduction."
Property Rights, Collective Action, and Poverty: The Role of Institutions for Poverty Reduction
(2008) Di Gregorio, Monica; Hagedorn, Konrad; Kirk, Michael; Korf, Benedikt; McCarthy, Nancy; Meinzen-Dick, Ruth; Swallow, Brent M.
"This paper presents a conceptual framework on how institutions of property rights and collective action can contribute to poverty reduction, including through external interventions and action by poor people themselves. The first part of the paper examines the initial conditions of poverty, highlighting the role of assets, risks and vulnerability, legal structures and power relations. The latter part investigates the decision-making dynamics of actors--both poor and non-poor--and how they can use the tangible and intangible resources they have to shape their livelihoods and the institutions that govern their lives. The paper concludes with a discussion of how attention to property rights and collective action can improve the understanding of outcomes in terms of changes in wellbeing."
Prosopis juliflora Invasion and Rural Livelihoods in the Lake Baringo Area of Kenya
(2008) Mwangi, Esther; Swallow, Brent M.
"Global concern about deforestation caused by fuelwood shortages prompted the introduction of Prosopis juliflora to many tropical areas in the 1970s and 1980s. P. juliflora is a hardy nitrogen-fixing tree that is now recognised as one of the world's most invasive alien species. The introduction and subsequent inva-sion of P. juliflora in the Lake Baringo area of Kenya has attracted national media attention and contra-dictory responses from responsible agencies. This paper presents an assessment of the livelihood effects, costs of control and local perceptions on P. juliflora of rural residents in the Lake Baringo area. Unlike some other parts of the world where it had been introduced, few of the potential benefits of P. juliflora have been captured and very few people realise the net benefits in places where the invasion is most ad-vanced. Strong local support for eradication and replacement appears to be well justified. Sustainable utilisation will require considerable investment and institutional innovation."
The Role of Mobility with the Risk Management Strategies of Pastoralists and Agro-Pastoralists
(1994) Swallow, Brent M.
"African livestock owners pursue their livelihoods in a dynamic and risky environment. The external dynamic processes that affect livestock keeping include population growth and migration, changes in exchange relations, intensification of crop cultivation, expansion of crop cultivation, and changes in property rights to croplands, natural pastures, watering points and transhumance routes. There are also a number of dynamic, and stochastic, processes that influence livestock keeping in the shorter-term, such as fluctuations in rainfall and market conditions. Together these long-term and short-term processes shape the production and investment strategies of individual livestock keepers and the institutional arrangements that define property arrangements among livestock keepers and their neighbours. "These dynamic and risky processes affect human welfare and environmental quality, some of which were discussed in detail at the Woburn and Matopos Workshops hosted by the Commonwealth Secretariat in 1990 and 1992. Attention focused on the short-term dynamics of rainfall, forage availability and livestock production, and on the dynamic relationships between ecological change and livestock numbers."
Strategies and Tenure in African Livestock Development
(1990) Swallow, Brent M.
"Donor agencies and African governments have implemented a variety of rangeland tenure instruments in efforts to achieve the objectives of increasing urban meat supplies, raising net exports of meat and live animals, conserving rangeland resources, and settling nomadic pastoralists. Rangeland tenure instruments are designed to achieve policy objectives through their effects on the behavior of individuals and groups of livestock owners. The consequences of those policy instruments depend upon livestock owners' strategies and the complex interactions between the instruments, the ecological system, and the social system. Prediction of the likely consequences of policy instruments requires an understanding of livestock owner strategies and those interactions. The goal of this paper is to contribute to that understanding."
Tenure and Management of Tree Resources in Eastern and Southern Africa: Problems, Evidence, and Policy Implications
(2000) Place, Frank; Swallow, Brent M.
"Trees are essential throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Products include fuelwood, fruits, poles, timber, and medicines. Wood provides over 80% of cooking energy in nearly all countries of eastern and southern Africa. Trees can be key components of rich, biodiverse ecosystems, providing vital environmental services such as nitrogen fixing, watershed protection, soil erosion control, and carbon sequestration. These different products and services generate diverse stakeholders in agroforestry and forest systems, including private farmers, communities, nations, and the global community."
Understanding the Multiple Functions of Common Property Regimes: Examples from Rangelands
(1996) Swallow, Brent M.
"This paper presents an analytical framework for guiding studies of the use and management of natural resource systems in which: (i) several goods and services of value are produced; (ii) resource users have multiple objectives vis-a-vis collective management of the natural resource system; and (iii) sub-groups of resource users are distinguished by their property rights, endowments and preferences. The framework is motivated and validated by reference to rangeland systems in Africa Several implications for research and policy emerge."
Water, Women, and Local Social Organization in the Western Kenya Highlands
(2006) Were, Elizabeth; Swallow, Brent M.; Roy, Jessica
"Safe water is widely recognized as both a fundamental human need and a key input into economic activity. Across the developing world, the typical approach to addressing these needs is to segregate supplies of water for domestic use from water for large-scale agricultural production. In that arrangement, the goal of domestic water supply is to provide small amounts of clean safe water for direct consumption, cleaning, bathing and sanitation, while the goal of agricultural water supply is to provide large amounts of lower quality water for irrigated agriculture. A new third use of water is now being given more attention by researchers: small amounts of water employed in selected household enterprises. This third use may be particularly important for women. There is a potential, therefore, that provision of modest amounts of water to smallholder farmers can enhance household economic production, save labor time for women and girls, and improve family health. "This paper adds to the merger literature on the multiple values of improved water supplies--improved health, time savings, and small-scale production for individual farmers and collectives--for the case of a rural community in the western highlands of Kenya. With minimum external support, two groups in this community have managed to install and operate systems of spring protection and piped water to their members' homesteads. Members of those households, particularly women, have benefited substantially in terms of time savings, health and small-scale production. The experience of this community also illustrates some of the challenges that must be faced for a community to effectively self-organize the investment and maintenance of a community-based water scheme. There are challenges of finance, gender relations, and conflict over scarce water supplies, group leadership, enforcement of community bi-laws, and policy. Data from a census of springs in the same area show that successful collective action for water management is unusual, but certainly not unique, in this region of Kenya. Although women emerge as the main beneficiaries of improved water management in the community, their substantial contributions are largely hidden behind social norms regarding gender roles and relations. Research methods need to carefully triangulate information sources in order to clarify the very substantial and active roles performed by women. Kenya's water policy should be modified to better recognize and facilitate small-scale community-based water projects."
Who Gains and Who Loses from Compensated Displacement from Protected Areas? The Case of the Derema Corridor, Tanzania
(2013) Rantala, Salla E.; Vihemäki, Heini; Swallow, Brent M.; Jambiya, George
"Increasing attention is being paid to the social impacts of the exclusionary nature of conservation, as well as the mechanisms and policies put in place to mitigate negative impacts. Yet, factors that condition the restoration of well-being among people whose access to resources has changed due to conservation are still poorly understood. In this article we present an analytical framework for studying the social impacts of conservation interventions, and factors affecting post-intervention livelihood rehabilitation. We use this framework to analyse the consequences of the displacement of farmers from the Derema Corridor in northeastern Tanzania, who were given monetary compensation to mitigate livelihood losses. Drawing from qualitative and quantitative data collected over two years following their displacement, we find that the conservation intervention contributed to local social differentiation. Women and the poorest farmers experienced the strongest negative impacts, whereas those who were previously better-off emerged as relative winners among those affected. For more fair and equitable social outcomes, we recommend that conservation planners give careful attention to identifying rights-holders entitled to compensation, promptly implement ex ante risk management mechanisms, and give careful attention to the most appropriate forms of compensation and support measures in the local political economy context."