Browsing by Author "Terminski, Bogumil"

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Development-Induced Displacement and Human Security: A Very Short Introduction
(2012) Terminski, Bogumil
"It is estimated that fifteen million people each year are forced to leave their former place of residence as a result of major development projects. Alongside natural disasters, economic development is one of the greatest causes of contemporary internal displacement worldwide. The irreversible nature of many displacements caused by development can be compared only with the displacements in consequence of climate change and natural disasters or industrial accidents affecting large territories (such as the Asian tsunami of 2004 or the Chernobyl disaster in 1986). Just as in many cases of desertification, land degradation or shoreline erosion, the construction of large dams or creation of open-pit mines can make it impossible to resettle in the territory. The irreversibility of such displacements is one of the most important factors in their huge economic,social and cultural consequences. Especially dangerous is the displacement to far distant places due to irreversible interference with the natural environment. The result of the creation of large dams, expansion of mining, or oil exploitation does not have to be direct large-scale displacement. The negative environmental impact caused by development may lead to a substantial incidence of 'secondary' forced migration of rural populations to cities or other territories. The most serious social consequences have accompanied displacement to territories which are completely different from those previously inhabited. Resettlement plans implemented in China and India should consider the displacement of the population of particular nearby economic territories into others similar to those previously abandoned. Displacement--understood as dislocation from the homeland territory without social support in the new place of residence--is a violation of the most fundamental human rights and should be entirely prohibited. Resettlement can be defined as a planned and organized relocation to a strictly specified new place of residence, accompanied by social support mechanisms and compensation for lost goods. In many countries even resettlement is only permitted in the case of projects for public use."
Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement: Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges
(University of Geneva, 2013) Terminski, Bogumil
"The object of this report is to present development-caused displacement as a highly diverse global social problem occurring in all regions of the world, as a human rights issue, and as a source of challenges to public international law and and institutions providing humanitarian assistance. More in-depth analysis has been preceded by an introduction which draws attention to the specific nature of DIDR as one of the categories of internal displacement. Equal attention has been devoted to the origins of research into this subject already undertaken during the fifties. Initially the field was limited to a small group of applied anthropologists, who analyzed the social consequences of construction of dams in Africa. The political character of this problem and its large social consequences have in recent years caught the attention of scholars in a growing number of disciplines. Another purpose of this report is to analyze the main causes of development-induced displacement worldwide. In order to maintain the transparent character of the analysis, I have distinguished eight main causes of the process. These include: a) construction of dams, hydropower plants, artificial reservoirs, irrigation projects and channels, b) development of transportation (building of roads, highways, railways, airports, ports, etc.), c) urbanization, re-urbanization and other transformations of urban space (expansion of urban areas, demolition of poverty-stricken districts such as slums and favelas, urban transport, underground and water supply projects, d) mining and transportation of resources (especially expansion of open-cast mining), e) deforestation and development of agriculture (especially large monoculture plantations, such as palm oil plantations on Borneo Island), f) population redistribution schemes (such as the politics of villagization in Ethiopia and Tenzania), g) conservation of nature: the creation of national parks, reserves or other biosphere protection units (the problem of so-called conservation refugees or conservation-induced displacement), and h) other reasons. The next task undertaken in this report is the analysis of DIDR specificity in the several regions of the world most acutely affected by this problem. I analyze the most spectacular or best-known examples of development projects which have led to involuntary resettlement having a negative impact on the living standards of local communities. I devote much attention to the methods of humanitarian assistance for DPs and to relations between DIDR and international human rights law and protection. Recently adopted documents relating to the protection of displaced people (Guiding Principles of Internal Displacement, the Great Lakes Pact, Convention of Kampala) treat this problem in a very selective and limited manner. Increased involvement of national and international actors in this issue should be accompanied by adequate action on the part of international humanitarian agencies including the UNHCR. In another section of the publication I draw attention to the activities of international institutions on issues of development-induced displacement and resettlement. The World Bank is currently the only international institution significantly engaging with this issue. A substantial part of the report is devoted to analysis of the consequences of development-induced displacement and resettlement on the basis of the concept of human security which has evolved since the early nineties. The displacement caused by economic development, like all other categories of forced migration, is related to the significant decrease in the level of human security of people forced to flee their homes. The concept of human security can be used to analyze both the individual and community consequences of global social problems. The report is supplemented by the author’s extensive bibliography, over 50 pages long, of material related to development-induced displacement."
Environmentally-Induced Displacement and Human Security
(2012) Terminski, Bogumil
"We can distinguish two general causes of internal displacement worldwide: 1. the impact of threats to and ensuing decline in the level of human security below that needed for normal existence in the homeland territory, 2. administrative compulsion to leave the current place of residence. Every year, at least tens of millions of people on all continents are forced to leave their places of residence. The predominant cause is the occurrence of natural disasters, creating the most dynamic category of internal displacement. According to IDMC estimates, natural disasters expelled 42 million people from their homes in 2010 and 14 million people in 2011. Many cases of internal displacement are associated with the accelerating dynamics of climate change, which is a much more long-term phenomenon. The causes of this kind of displacement are the desertification of soils and potential rise in sea level. The aim of this paper will be to determine the impact on several areas of human security of long-term environmental change and the displacement it causes. The objective of this work is to draw attention to the impact of climate change on internal displacement as an important factor affecting the security of millions of inhabitants of our planet. Relevant considerations have been preceded by an analysis of the most important causes of internal displacement. Among them we can mention: 1. internal armed conflicts and escalation of violence, 2. discrimination, persecution, and repression by state authorities or other political actors, 3. natural or man-made disasters, 4. long-term environmental changes, 5. economic development, 6. conservation of nature, and 7. specific combinations of political, economic or environmental factors (such as famine). In the next section I draw attention to the historical examples of long-term displacement caused by climate change. Environmental factors and declining resources have been the root cause of migration over most of human history. Only the consequences of the Neolithic (r)evolution and the gradual emancipation from the forces of nature resulted in a greater diversity of contemporary migrations. The most important section of the work draws attention to the decline in the level of human security associated with long-term environmental processes and the displacement they cause. The consequences can be both violent conflicts for space and resources as well as more peaceful migrations in search of better living conditions. A useful research tool in analyzing such processes has been the classification of seven areas of human security included in the UNDP Human Development Report published in 1994. I have expanded this classification by adding two areas: cultural security, and risks affecting the groups most vulnerable to the negative consequences of environmental change. Among those I have mentioned are: women, children, the elderly, indigenous people, illegal settlers, those with no formal rights to land or resources, and other categories of minorities."
Mining-Induced Displacement and Resettlement: Social Problem and Human Rights Issue
(2012) Terminski, Bogumil
"The object of this paper is to present mining-induced displacement and resettlement as a highly diverse global socioeconomic issue occurring in all regions of the world, as a human rights issue, and as a source of challenges to public international law and and institutions providing humanitarian assistance. Development induced displacement is primarily an socioeconomic issue associated with loss or significant reduction of access to basic resources on which communities depend. Physical abandonment of the existing residence shall therefore secondary to the loss of access to material resources such as land, pastures, forests and clean water as well as intangible resources such as socio-economic ties. More in-depth analysis has been preceded by an introduction which draws attention to the specific nature of MIDR as one of the categories of internal displacement. Mining is currently not a statistically significant category of development-induced displacement and resettlement (DIDR). Nevertheless, the social costs of exploitation are great, and that is why the topic is worthy of a wider and more profound scientific analysis. The first displacement caused by mining dates back to the late nineteenth century. As pointed out by Walter Fernandes, in India alone, mining has led to the displacement of more than 1,5 million people over the last fifty years (particularly in Jharkhand region). Other sources estimated the scale of mining-caused displacement in India at more than 2,55 million people between 1950 and 1990. Contrary to the opinions of some specialists, the problem of mining-induced displacement and resettlement is a global problem, occurring on all continents. Countries with particularly large-scale MIDR include: India, China, many African countries (e.g. Ghana, Mali, Zimbabwe) and even Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The problem of compulsory resettlement is also a consequence of open-pit coal mining in European countries like Germany and Poland. Although mining-induced displacement is a global phenomenon, problems experienced by the displacees in many parts of the world differ greatly. The largest portion of the displacement is caused by open-pit mining (associated with the extraction of gold, copper, lignite, and diamonds)."
Oil-induced Displacement and Resettlement: Social Problem and Human Rights Issue
(2012) Terminski, Bogumil
"This publication presents a broad and complex view of internal displacement caused by the exploitation of oil. In contrast to previously published analyses, this one draws attention to the global dimension of this phenomenon. It occurs not only in Nigeria, Sudan, and Chad, but in many other countries of the African continent and in South/Central America. I try to pay attention on political and environmental contexts of displacement and their relationship with indigenous rights, the ethical responsibility of business (CSR in oil industry), and ethnic conflicts and civil wars. I also highlight the need to guarantee the rights of local communities to participate in the distribution of profits from the exploitation of resources."
Realizing the Right to Health of Undocumented Immigrants in Europe: Legal and Social Challenges
(Monduzzi Editore, 2013) Terminski, Bogumil
"The subject of the analysis presented in this article is the legal context and political debates regarding access of undocumented migrants to health care assistance and institutions of public health. Consequences of non-regulated legal status significantly impair or even deny illegal migrants the most basic access to medical care. The main condition of entitlement to specialized medical care is legal residence within a state in accordance with its legal provisions. Fearing a growth in illegal migration and increased expenditure, EU countries are not interested in extending social benefits to irregular migrants. Fearing deportation, dismissal from work and the enormous costs of private health care, they usually do not ask for professional medical assistance. By analyzing the most important health risks for migrants the author has also highlighted the current legal and political debates on this issue. Lawful residence based on migration status and rules which governing the welfare state must be coordinated with migrants' access to health care on the basis of universality and non-discrimination. In recent years we have seen a growing tendency in Europe to restrict access to health care for undocumented migrants and reinforce the relationship between access to health care institutions and immigration control policies. In many EU countries such as Sweden and Denmark, the right of undocumented migrants to free emergency care and more advanced health care is restricted and may be subject to payment. Examining international treaties and explanatory documents from the Council of Europe and the United Nations, I try to analyze relevant international laws affecting several groups of undocumented migrants concerning the right to health and access to health care institutions. This article also highlights activities undertaken in recent years by NGOs with the aim of establishing access to health for undocumented migrants in EU countries and placing this issue on the international agenda."